Passage to India Analysis

Stylistics (literature) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | This article's  tone  or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's  guide to writing better articles  for suggestions. (October 2010)| Stylistics  is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective. As a discipline it links  literary criticism  and  linguistics, but has no autonomous domain of its own. 1][2]  The preferred object of stylistic studies is  literature, but not exclusively â€Å"high literature† but also other forms of written texts such as text from the domains of  advertising,  pop culture,  politics  or  religion. [3] Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as  socialisation, the production and reception of  meaning, critical  discourse analysis  and  literary criticism.Other featur es of stylistics include the use of  dialogue, including regional  accents  and people’s  dialects, descriptive language, the use of  grammar, such as the  active voice  or  passive voice, the distribution of  sentence  lengths, the use of particular  language registers, etc. In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language. Therefore, stylistics looks at what is ‘going on’ within the language; what the linguistic associations are that the style of language reveals.Contents  Ã‚  [hide]   * 1  Early twentieth century * 2  Late twentieth century * 3  Literary stylistics * 3. 1  Poetry * 3. 2  Implicature * 3. 3  Tense * 3. 4  The point of poetry * 4  See also * 5  Notes * 6  References and related reading * 7  External links| ——————————â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- [edit]Early twentieth century The analysis of literary style goes back to  Classical rhetoric, but modern stylistics has its roots in  Russian Formalism,[4]  and the related  Prague School, in the early twentieth century. In 1909,  Charles Bally's  Traite de tylistique francaise  had proposed stylistics as a distinct academic discipline to complementSaussurean  linguistics. For Bally, Saussure's linguistics by itself couldn't fully describe the language of personal expression. [5]  Bally's programme fitted well with the aims of the Prague School. [6] Building on the ideas of the Russian Formalists, the Prague School developed the concept of  foregrounding, whereby poetic language stands out from the background of non-literary language by means of  deviation  (from the norms of everyday language) or  parallelism. 7]  According to the Prague School, the background language isn't fixed, and the relationship betw een poetic and everyday language is always shifting. [8] ————————————————- [edit]Late twentieth century Roman Jakobson  had been an active member of the Russian Formalists and the Prague School, before emigrating to America in the 1940s. He brought together Russian Formalism and American  New Criticism  in his  Closing Statement  at a conference on stylistics at  Indiana University  in 1958. 9]  Published as  Linguistics and Poetics  in 1960, Jakobson's lecture is often credited with being the first coherent formulation of stylistics, and his argument was that the study of poetic language should be a sub-branch of linguistics. [10]  The  poetic function  was one of six general  functions of language  he described in the lecture. Michael Halliday  is an important figure in the development of British stylistics. [11]  His 1971 study  Lingu istic Function and Literary Style: An Inquiry into the Language of William Golding's ‘The Inheritors'  is a key essay. 12]  One of Halliday's contributions has been the use of the term  register  to explain the connections between language and its context. [13]For Halliday register is distinct from  dialect. Dialect refers to the habitual language of a particular user in a specific geographical or social context. Register describes the choices made by the user,[14]  choices which depend on three variables:  field  (â€Å"what the participants†¦ are actually engaged in doing†, for instance, discussing a specific subject or topic),[15]tenor  (who is taking part in the exchange) and  mode  (the use to which the language is being put).Fowler comments that different fields produce different language, most obviously at the level of  vocabulary  (Fowler. 1996, 192) The linguist  David Crystal  points out that Halliday’s ‘tenorâ⠂¬â„¢ stands as a roughly equivalent term for ‘style’, which is a more specific alternative used by linguists to avoid ambiguity. (Crystal. 1985, 292) Halliday’s third category,  mode, is what he refers to as the symbolic organisation of the situation. Downes recognises two distinct aspects within the category of mode and suggests that not only does it describe the relation to the medium: written, spoken, and so on, but also describes the  genre  of the text. Downes. 1998, 316) Halliday refers to genre as pre-coded language, language that has not simply been used before, but that predetermines the selection of textual meanings. The linguist  William Downes  makes the point that the principal characteristic of register, no matter how peculiar or diverse, is that it is obvious and immediately recognisable. (Downes. 1998, 309) ————————————————- [ edit]Literary stylistics In  The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Crystal observes that, in practice, most stylistic analysis has attempted to deal with the complex and ‘valued’ language within literature, i. . ‘literary stylistics’. He goes on to say that in such examination the scope is sometimes narrowed to concentrate on the more striking features of literary language, for instance, its ‘deviant’ and abnormal features, rather than the broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses. For example, the compact language of poetry is more likely to reveal the secrets of its construction to the  stylistician  than is the language of plays and novels. (Crystal. 1987, 71). [edit]PoetryAs well as conventional styles of language there are the unconventional – the most obvious of which is  poetry. In  Practical Stylistics,  HG Widdowson  examines the traditional form of the  epitaph, as found on headstones in a cemetery. For example: His memory is dear today As in the hour he passed away. (Ernest C. Draper ‘Ern’. Died 4. 1. 38) (Widdowson. 1992, 6) Widdowson makes the point that such sentiments are usually not very interesting and suggests that they may even be dismissed as ‘crude verbal carvings’ and crude verbal disturbance (Widdowson, 3).Nevertheless, Widdowson recognises that they are a very real attempt to convey feelings of human loss and preserve affectionate recollections of a beloved friend or family member. However, what may be seen as poetic in this language is not so much in the formulaic  phraseology  but in where it appears. The verse may be given undue reverence precisely because of the sombre situation in which it is placed. Widdowson suggests that, unlike words set in stone in a graveyard, poetry is unorthodox language that vibrates with inter-textual implications. Widdowson. 1992, 4) Two problems with a stylistic analysis of poetry are noted by  PM Wetherill  in  Literary Text: An Examination of Critical Methods. The first is that there may be an over-preoccupation with one particular feature that may well minimise the significance of others that are equally important. (Wetherill. 1974, 133) The second is that any attempt to see a text as simply a collection of stylistic elements will tend to ignore other ways whereby meaning is produced. (Wetherill. 1974, 133) [edit]ImplicatureIn ‘Poetic Effects’ from  Literary Pragmatics, the  linguist  Adrian Pilkington  analyses the idea of ‘implicature’, as instigated in the previous work of  Dan Sperber  and  Deirdre Wilson. Implicature may be divided into two categories: ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ implicature, yet between the two extremes there are a variety of other alternatives. The strongest implicature is what is emphatically implied by the speaker or writer, while weaker implicatures are the wider possibilitie s of meaning that the hearer or reader may conclude.Pilkington’s ‘poetic effects’, as he terms the concept, are those that achieve most relevance through a wide array of weak implicatures and not those meanings that are simply ‘read in’ by the hearer or reader. Yet the distinguishing instant at which weak implicatures and the hearer or reader’s conjecture of meaning diverge remains highly subjective. As Pilkington says: ‘there is no clear cut-off point between assumptions which the speaker certainly endorses and assumptions derived purely on the hearer’s responsibility. ’ (Pilkington. 991, 53) In addition, the stylistic qualities of poetry can be seen as an accompaniment to Pilkington’s poetic effects in understanding a poem's meaning. [edit]Tense Widdowson points out that in  Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem â€Å"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner† (1798), the mystery of the Mariner’s abrupt appea rance is sustained by an idiosyncratic use of tense. (Widdowson. 1992, 40) For instance, the Mariner ‘holds’ the wedding-guest with his ‘skinny hand’ in the  present tense, but releases it in the  past tense(‘†¦ his hands dropt he. ‘); only to hold him again, this time with his ‘glittering eye’, in the present. Widdowson. 1992, 41) [edit]The point of poetry Widdowson notices that when the content of poetry is summarised, it often refers to very general and unimpressive observations, such as ‘nature is beautiful; love is great; life is lonely; time passes’, and so on. (Widdowson. 1992, 9) But to say: Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore, So do our minutes hasten to their end †¦ William Shakespeare, ‘60’. Or, indeed: Love, all alike, no season knows nor clime, Nor hours, days months, which are the rags of time †¦ John Donne, ‘The Sun Rising’,  Poems  (1633)This language gives us[who? ]  a new perspective on familiar themes and allows us to look at them without the personal or social conditioning that we unconsciously associate with them. (Widdowson. 1992, 9) So, although we[who? ]  may still use the same exhausted words and vague terms like ‘love’, ‘heart’ and ‘soul’ to refer to human experience, to place these words in a new and refreshing context allows the poet the ability to represent humanity and communicate honestly. This, in part, is stylistics, and this, according to Widdowson, is the point of poetry (Widdowson. 1992, 76).

Hostile Work Environment Essay

The process of defining a hostile work environment involves numerous criteria. Such include, but not limited to, sexual harassment, discriminative employment practices, discriminative employee promotion practices, and ethnically tailored employee socialization behavior in an organization (Federal Communications Commission, 2008). According to the laws and regulations provided for in the numerous employment Acts, all employees are equal. Such has the implication that only skills and academic qualification must lay the basis of employment, rather than sexual orientation. Therefore sexual harassment practices, which is evidently common in the employment sector, remains an ethical issue as it promotes the concept of inequality between men and women in the community (DeLorenzo, 1998). This essay seeks to discuss three criteria that must be met in order to define a hostile work environment, namely; sexual harassment, discriminative employment practices, and discriminative employee promotion practices. The author also identifies the key ethical issue within sexual harassment. The process of qualifying a hostile work environment must entail the following among key criteria among others. First is sexual harassment. According to the underlying definitions, sexual harassment entails encompasses any form of unethical practices engaged by employers or employees against an employee simply because of their sexual orientation (DeLorenzo, 1998). Numerous findings have established that female employees have eminently been victims of sexual abuse in an organization in the quest for promotions as well as job security. Such have also been evident during the recruitment practices by companies were candidates follow victims of sexual favor requests by recruiting officials in order to be recruited. In addition, sexual harassment is quite evident in a workforce that is predominantly marked with members of the same gender. In spite this common practices, the qualification of sexual harassment must provide sufficient evidence to be admissible in the legal court proceedings (DeLorenzo, 1998). Such must include proof of sexual assault statements by employees or management against the accuser or request for sexual favors in order to enjoy particular employment privileges in the organization. Another criterion for qualifying hostile work environment is assessment of discriminative employment practices in the organization (Federal Communications Commission, 2008). It is a common practice by organizations to engage in keeping employee recruitment records. This is quite instrumental in identifying and qualifying desired skills and qualifications in future recruitment exercises. Such have the implication that, by accessing such records, an investigator can sufficiently identify any discriminative recruitment practice in the organization based on the available qualifications by applicants and various recommendations on individual members of the interview panel. The third criterion for that must be met in order to define a hostile work environment is proof of discriminative employee promotions and awarding practices in an organization (Federal Communications Commission, 2008). Promotions, awards, and salary increments are by principle to be guided by performance and capability of individual employees in executing given posts in an organization. Therefore, discriminative promotion practices can be easily identified by examining the roles, leadership skills, experience, and academic qualifications of the various employees in the organization. Lastly, the key ethical issue within sexual harassment is that it negates the underlying principles equal opportunities for all in the society (DeLorenzo, 1998). The concept of equality dictates for equal treatment of all irrespective of their sexual orientations. Despite this, sexual harassment finds much emphasis in determining the enjoyment of company privileges as well as on the interpersonal relations among the company’s workforces. Such contradict ethical principles by promoting unfair gender oriented practices in the organization.

Ethical Dimensions of Research Studies Term Paper

Ethical Dimensions of Research Studies - Term Paper Example This moral standard requires all researchers to conduct their activities in the course of their studies or methodical investigations in a manner that enhances the well-being of test subjects (Bulger et-al, 2012). In other words, the health, safety, and welfare of individuals involved in the study ought to be the most important aspect and consideration of the study. Results from the study elucidated the fact that exposure to this smoke had considerable health effects on the children involved as test subjects. All researchers have a duty to inform individuals involved in research as subjects on the dangers and threats posed by a particular research or study. Giving the subjects all information regarding the dangers is of significance as it helps them to make an informed decision. Before any research activities commence, it is important for the subjects to sign an informed consent form whereby they ascertain that they have made informed decisions without any intimidation of coercion on being subjects of a particular test or procedure. Signing a consent form safeguards the researcher from any legal action that could be taken against his/her by these subjects. Some research activities or studies have negative consequences and therefore individuals in charge of the research could be sued for damages. According to Fouka and Mantzorou (2011), â€Å"Informed consent seeks to incorporate the rights of autonomous individuals through self-determination. It also seeks to prevent assault on the integrity of the patient and protects personal liberty and veracity† (p. 4). In these children’s case, the researchers did not inform the subjects on the dangers and implications that could follow exposure of secondhand smoke to children. In doing so, they failed to provide them with appropriate information and facts that he could have used to make an informed decision on whether to become subjects of the study or

Innovation Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Innovation Management - Essay Example Not just the adjustment in the earth is making organization receive new patterns, for example, it increases spending to have the capacity to meet the aggressive basic, yet these patterns additionally add to an increment in the instability. From a systemic point of view, the outcomes of these activities can be opened up past desires by the interrelatedness of the components prompting the conclusions that the very results of organizational activities are progressively eccentric. This clear mystery of innovation is normally a common marker of complex systems at work. For this situation, the utilization of innovation to improve the possibilities of survival of the firm, by endeavoring to control its surroundings, winds up compounding advance nature rendering it more turbulent. This expanded vulnerability prompts multilevel flimsiness with direct outcomes: both new dangers and new open doors for organizations. Expanding the turbulence in a situation does not mean actuating a change in all measurements consistently in the meantime. These adjustments in the earth can be seen as instabilities for a few organizations and consequently make dangers. Then again, these progressions can likewise be "arranged" to bring open doors for the organizations that made them. Turbulence might frequently be close to genuine rivalry from organizations in full control of the commercial center. This is what is known as the test of the hypothesis to see how organizations change and change themselves while in the meantime changing and changing their surroundings.

Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 9

Reflection - Essay Example I am a thorough optimist, and there is no scope for pessimism in my scheme of things. I compare the life to a sea. In the sea the waves are bound to be there. Having gone for the sea bath, there is no question of being afraid of the oncoming waves. If the waves are powerful I’ll duck them. When and waves are friendly, I’ll dance with them. When the waves are normal I’ll swim towards my destination. Just like swimming becomes more and more perfect by experience, taking decisions in life is a matter of practice, based on the strength of the past experiences and guidance from teachers and elders. I will never admit defeat in my life on any issue and work hard and intelligently to achieve my goals. My career ambition is to occupy the chair of Principal in an educational institution. I am fully aware that this is a chair of dual responsibility. Firstly that of exercising overall control on the teaching system in the institution and secondly related to office administr ation. Both are equally important. The parents would like to admit their wards in an educational institution that is administered well. I would like to be an instrument to further the goodwill of the institution created by the past administrators/principals and in the light of the knowledge gained, I would like to experiment my own innovative ideas. Pessimism has no scope in my scheme of things. The wise saying goes, ‘those who walk only stumble.’ So willingness to walk forward is of utmost importance, notwithstanding the occasional failures. 2. Extrinsic Motivation 1. Peaceful 2. Cooperation 3. Flexibility status (level in society) 4. Power (influence) 5. Teamwork Intrinsic Motivation 1. Creativity 2. Freedom 3. Organized 4. Competence (effective) 5. Adventure (new and challenging experiences) Having chosen my future career as the Principal of an educational institution, I know that I have got to imbibe the sterling qualities of leadership in students and the members o f the faculty. Internal motivators indicate the strength of the inner world of an individual. I am aware that I need to be morally strong and should inspire both the members of the faculty as well as the students. I believe in mixing freely with the faculty and students and at the same time keep the dignity of the chair of the Principal. I know that I have to be disciplined first and then expect discipline from others. I treat every crisis as an opportunity I would like to provide full freedom for all their creative endeavors. I am prepared to condone hundred mistakes for success of one creative, original result, if in the pursuit of that one has worked sincerely. I work for the sake of work and without any motivated desires and my single-pointed aim is to bring name and fame to the educational institution that I will be heading. I do not have any craze for personal secular rewards, but my desire is that my institution should set high educational standards. Some of the examples of b ehavior of intrinsic motivation are participating in the music competition, because one finds that activity internally rewarding. One gets the inner joy that cannot be estimated in monetary terms. Some individuals choose the tough career options like music, over the safe careers like engineering, medical practitioner, even though in the former the reward aspect is difficult to achieve. One may or may not succeed as the musician considered from

Audit Theory and Practice Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Audit Theory and Practice - Article Example This requires of the auditor to issue a 'statement of independence' containing a number of declarations such as: As per information derived from literature sources, the major criteria of a standard auditing process are: professional ethics, auditors' legal liability, audit risk, accepting the engagement and planning the audit, internal control over auditing process, audit sampling, designing substantive procedures, auditing different financial instruments and completing and reporting the audit (Cosserat, 2004, Eilifsen & Messier, 2006). Each of these core criteria will later be examined for strengthening our core argument that successful auditing can only ensue from a high degree of dissimilarity between auditors and the company being audited. The independence of auditors for various business activities has been ensured over a long period of time based on unsavoury corporate scandals such as Enron in 1997. At present, the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) as part of its standard code of ethics (revised rules) has proposed the following structural changes in auditing activities: 1. 1. Taking a 'conceptual approach' to independence: This is an approach which reconciles any perceived threat to independence of auditors, accepts safeguards and takes appropriate steps (interventions) to eliminate threats (Liandu, 2002). 2. No one fixed set of rules: Under IFAC guidelines, it's no longer possible to allow just one set of rules for a given auditing scenario. This is because each specific scenario is now recognised for its own merit in order to generate a set of financial instruments for the auditing activity (Liandu, 2002). 3. The importance of assurance services: In addition to company data, auditors are now encouraged to increasingly rely on secondary data such as performance indicators, statistical information, market and media reports, systems and processes and compliance with regulatory guidelines (Liandu, 2002). The purpose of assurance services is to enhance the credibility of overall information at the disposal of the auditor. 4. Safeguards mechanism: The general principle is that any kind of self-interest, self-review, advocacy, familiarity and intimidation can threaten auditing independence (Liandu, 2002). A number of safeguards are hence, proposed. Regulatory enforcement of independence requirements, external review of a firm's quality control service, keeping technical data up-to-date, a corporate governance structure which provides oversight to services provided by a firm, communications about independence, rotating senior personnel and performing annual review of the auditing exercise (Liandu, 2002). With regard to Cosserat (2004) core criteria of auditing

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Environmental Toxicology Essay

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Environmental Toxicology - Essay Example According to studies it has been found that certain POPs such as chlordane, toxaphene and mirex have the ability to induce hepatotoxicity-related genes. These genes were induced in the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line and were evaluated by using microarray and gene ontology studies. It was observed that certain pathways which were associated with hepatotoxicity such as metabolism of xenobiotics by apoptosis complement and coagulation cascades and cell cycle regulation, were up-regulated or down-regulated by POPs. POPs have the ability to express different genes and also help in understanding the hepatotoxic mechanism of POPs (Choi, Song, Lee, & Ryu, 2013). POPs are an important aspect of environmental toxicology and have been increasingly associated with increased risk of cancer and tumor pathogenesis. POPs belong to environmental endocrine disruptors or are an important part of aquatic ecosystem. It has been difficult to assess the toxinogenomic effects of POPs however an important mechanism is by their action on the aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway in the fish. Through this pathway they induce cytosolic complex formation, translocation of the receptor and induction of the CYP1A (Zhou, et al., 2010). These effects are a step forward in understanding the toxicology of the POPs, however, stll further research is required in this challenging aspect of the POP mechanism. Zhou, H., Wu, H., Liao, C., Diao, X., Zhen, J., Chen, L., & Xue, Q. (January 01, 2010). Toxicology mechanism of the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in fish through AhR pathway.  Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods,  20,  6,

Chinese Popular Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chinese Popular Culture - Essay Example e styles of Chinese people are entirely different from that of the other parts of the world, mainly because of political reasons rather than cultural reasons. Chinese people do not have the freedom to express their views and opinions freely. They forced to adapt a culture or living style which is digestible to the communist administration. Chinese media is under the control of Chinese communist administration and independent functioning of media is impossible in China. Another cultural aspect of China is the spreading of martial arts. In fact many of the current popular martial arts like Kung Fu, Tai Chi etc were originated in China. This paper analyses Chinese popular culture in general and media and martial arts specifically to know more about the Chinese popular culture and its effects on people. Morton & Lewis (2004) in their book, China: Its History and Culture, have pointed out that â€Å"Buddhism is wide spread in China with somewhere between 70 and 100 million followers. Buddhist and Daoist philosophy advocates deep breathing and slow motion martial arts activities in order to improve health† (Morton & Lewis, p.278). Buddhism and Daoism are two of the prominent religions in China. There are many similarities in the beliefs and practices of Daoism and Buddhism in China. Both the religions stress the importance of practicing martial arts and deep breathing for maintaining physical and mental health of the people. Moreover, ancient Chinese administrators and military also asked the people to practice these things in order to prepare a strong military force. â€Å"One can trace a history of military support for sports and martial arts back to the early imperial period peaking in the Tang dynasty†(Morton & Lewis, p.267). According to Kennedy and Guo (2010), â€Å"up until about 1900, Chinese martial arts training were conducted either in the military by active duty soldiers or villagers† (Kennedy and Guo, p.1). In order to win sports events and also to win

Moral Dilemma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Moral Dilemma - Essay Example (Moral Dilemmas: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Therefore, it makes good sense to state that for a given agent, under a set of given circumstances, there are reasons to do either A or B, and this even when it is a fact that one set of reasons may be stronger than the other. (Foot, 2003) Does this mean, for a fact, that all moral dilemmas end up with a residue of guilt (Moral Dilemmas and Moral Ambiguity) This is a situation which in essence constitutes a real life moral dilemma: a woman, who is six months pregnant, discovers that she has bowel cancer. She must undergo treatment for the same, which is chemotherapy, but at the same time, she has been informed that the treatment would most probably end up deforming her unborn baby. Should the woman decide to go ahead with the chemotherapy, thus taking a chance with her unborn baby, or must she opt to wait for the baby to be born in order to start treatment, which may in fact endanger her own life What are the ethical issues involved in such a case, and what is the moral dilemma that the woman is facing at the present time The main issue or moral dilemma would be whether the woman must opt to have the chemotherapy or not. What then would be the alternatives for the unfortunate woman What are the different ethical issues that would be involved in the alternative courses of action for the woman Is it possible for the woman to be able to reason out, eventually, which horn of the moral dilemma would in fact be the best choice possible (Moral Dilemmas and Moral Ambiguity) What are the ethical issues involved in this case What, as a matter of fact, is referred to as 'ethics', and what is 'morality' How can an individual behave in a moral and in an ethical manner Today, especially, these issues and other similar ones seem to be overtaking the people, and most especially, younger people, who are faced with rapid changes and developments in all aspects of life. For example, one issue that has been in the forefront for some time is that of 'bioethics'. This is an extremely difficult field, because it is almost all the time concerned with some of the subjects that trouble man the most, life, death, the nature of both, what sort of life is actually worth living, what exactly constitutes murder, how exactly one must treat individuals who are in constant and relentless pain, what sort of responsibilities does one human being have towards another, and so on and so forth. (Issues in Bioethics, ethical dilemmas in biology and medicine) The other topic that seems to be the cause of several rancorous debates between groups of people is that of abortion of the fetus, pregnancy choices of a woman and other related issues. Medical treatments is also one issue that troubles many people, and the related topics here would be what is death, and what exactly constitutes the state of death Is there a bright line of sorts that would identify and state that this is what death is (Issues in Bioethics, ethical dilemmas in biology and medicine) As a matter of fact, doctors are faced all the time with moral dilemmas, and as far as Western medicine is concerned, the doctor-patient relationship gives rise to the 'principle of not doing any harm' or what is known as 'non-malfeasance'.

Findyourdeal.com Thesis Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Findyourdeal.com - Thesis Proposal Example Specifications for all these components are standardized and are available off the shelf in any computer store or an e-commerce website. We will extensively use open source software applications to run our IS resources. Most of the open source software applications are royalty free, and hence will shoot down our costs. Some examples of free and open source applications will be Ubuntu as the operating system, Open Office as the general productivity suite, Mozilla Firefox/Google Chrome as the browser, GIMP as photo editor. We will outsource annual maintenance contracts to local hardware providers, thereby nullifying the requirement of any dedicated manpower for maintenance of hardware resources at out office. We will also employ freelance technical help personnel from lower cost economies to drive down our software maintenance costs. 1. Aggregate deals from companies: To keep costs down in the initial phase, we will use the internet to scout for deals being offered by companies. Sourcing of deals may be done through 3 distinct processes: E-commerce businesses range from a multibillion dollar business like Amazon, to really small mom-and-pop-managed kind of a website that generates not more than$5000 revenues in a month. The set of features required in an e-commerce website obviously depends on the present status of an e-commerce business, and also perhaps on the future growth potential. While the initial two components are common place, it selecting appropriate e-commerce software that will be a critical activity. Available e-commerce systems may be categorized using a whole lot of parameters like, Open source / Proprietary, Off-she Shelf/Custom made, Microsoft Technologies/LAMP based or Product/SaaS. Every available e-commerce component have its own utility and caters to a specific set of customers, we have chosen to use LAMP based open source e-commerce systems for our business. LAMP is an acronym for Linux, Apache, MySQL and

The Augustinian Theodicy Essay Example for Free

The Augustinian Theodicy Essay Throughout history, the problems of evil and suffering have always been prevalent in the world. The problems can be split up into two types: moral evil and natural suffering. Moral evil is generally viewed as anything that is caused by humans and inflicts pain (physical or psychological) or death or obstructs lifes freedom and/or expression; for example, murder, war, crime. Natural suffering is generally viewed as events that occur because of the physical world or environment; for example, earthquakes, volcanoes, flooding. Evil and suffering therefore present believers in the God of Classical Theism with a logical problem- one of them being the Inconsistent Triad. The Inconsistent Triad consists of three premises: 1- God is omnipotent; 2- God is omnibenevolent; 3- there is evil in the world. All three premises cannot be true at the same time which means either God does not exist or there is no evil in the world. St Augustine of Hippo, who lived from 354 to 430 AD in the Roman Province of Africa, was a Manichaean (Persian and Dualist religion) in his early until he later converted to Christianity. Augustine proposed a theodicy, which is an attempt to reconcile the existence of an omnibenevolent and omnipotent God with the undeniable fact of evil and suffering in the world; it is derived from the Greek words theos or God and dike or justice. Augustines theodicy explains that according to Genesis, God being perfect created a perfect world where because of His goodness and perfection, God gave humans free will. Therefore, the possibility of evil is necessary as the world can never be as perfect as God. The Fall is also central to his theodicy because when Adam and Eve disobeyed God, mans original purity was lost and all their descendents inherited original sin and original guilt because they were seminally present in the loins of Adam. As a result, we all deserve the consequences which means moral evil is a misuse of our freedom and natural evil is punishment for all mans sins. The theodicy goes further in explaining that we cannot blame God for evil as evil is not a thing in itself but rather privatio boni, which is Latin for the privation of good. This means evil is not an entity, but a lack of goodness or righteousness therefore evil only happens when good goes wrong. Augustines theodicy essentially says that God is right not to interfere with problems of evil and suffering in the world, as it is perfectly justified that we should suffer and at the end of our lives- if we have accepted that Gods forgiveness is necessary- we will go to Heaven, otherwise all non-believers will be punished in Hell for eternity. For some Christians- mainly fundamental Christians- Augustines theodicy succeeds in justifying evil and suffering in the world. However, for non-Christians and even liberal Christians, the theodicy fails for a number of different reasons. The theodicy fails in some ways because of the advance in science. Augustines theodicy is based on the Bible being interpreted as literal which opens him up to two scientific criticisms. In contrast to evolution theory, which is now widely accepted as an explanation for the existence of complex organisms through the gradual process of natural selection and random mutations over generations, if the Bible is taken as literal truth, then the theodicy is the reverse of evolution as it prescribes humans were created first. Another scientific criticism is whilst Augustine says we were all seminally present in the loins of Adam, our genes suggest otherwise. Not only does each person have their own unique DNA (with the exception of identical twins), other factors contribute to how a person develops, such as their socialization, which can create psychological differences too. Therefore it would be wrong to say that all humans are the same as Adam. Furthermore, there are logical criticisms of Augustines theodicy. If evil is not a thing in itself, then good and evil would unknown to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. So in Genesis, when Eve ate the forbidden fruit, she had no concept of evil. Schleiermacher, a late 18th/early 19th Century German philosopher, agreed the theodicy is flawed because he said it was a logical contradiction to say that a perfectly created world had gone wrong, since this would mean that evil had created itself ex nihilo, which is impossible. Either the world was created imperfect or God allowed it to go wrong. Perhaps the most important criticisms are moral as they challenge God. Being omniscient, God should have known that things would go wrong and being omnipotent, He could have made creation better and less flawed. Also, the creation of Hell is puzzling because surely God would not create it unless He knew that The Fall would happen which further questions His perfection. Not only that, the selection process for Heaven is discriminate as Heaven can be viewed as an exclusive club for people who have turned to Christ and accepted the need for Gods forgiveness. Therefore, God is wasteful of good souls as they would be punished eternally for having no Christian belief- even if they had been morally good people their whole lives. This clearly questions Gods omnibenevolence and fairness. At first evaluation, St Augustines theodicy appears to make some good points about the reasons for evil and suffering in the world, particularly his comparison of evil to darkness and them being an absence of good and light respectively. However on closer inspection, there are some clear flaws with the theodicy which challenge the God of Classical Theism as they criticise His creation and more importantly- Gods omnibenevolence. The theodicy works well for fundamental Christians, but is not effective in convincing other Christians and non-Christians into the reasons for the existence of evil and suffering in the world as it presents us with an arbitrary and flawed God.

Medium Of Defamation In The Cyberspace Media Essay

Medium Of Defamation In The Cyberspace Media Essay Defamation is potentially one of the largest areas of law which will be affected by the internet revolution as it deals, quite simply, with communication between people  [1]  . The internet provides a new means to facilitate this communication and so is an ideal forum for free speech, a practice which can often lead to vituperative and contumelious language  [2]  . A communication is defamatory if it tends so to harm the reputation of another as to lower him in the estimation of the community or to deter third persons from associating or dealing with him.  [3]   With the aim to injure the reputation of the victim and in particular to cause him (or her) to be regarded with feelings of hatred, contempt, ridicule, fear, dislike or disesteem is part of the objective of the defamation  [4]  . The defamer or the defendant can be taken into custody for his/her action if the plaintiff thinks that the information given in the cyberspace is false, inappropriate and resulting lowering down the plaintiff reputation. Depending on different countries and regions, the punishment for defamation in the cyberspace is varies due to its law. Some country for example Brunei can take 5 years prisons for the punishment. It is not only the author or originator of a defamatory statement that may be liable for the publication of that statement; rather, defamation law ensures that anyone who plays a significant role in the act of republication or redistribution of defamatory message will be held responsible for that message  [5]  . This objective of this paper is to determine jurisdiction on the regional cases of defamation in Brunei and Malaysia. Other than that, this paper also explains medium of defamation in the cyberspace, the effects of the defamation to the victim, the punishment to the defamer and the court action with the case. BRUNEI AND MALAYSIA DEFAMATION LAW Both Brunei and Malaysia defamation law are based on the English Common Law  [6]  . MALAYSIA DEFAMATION LAW Malaysia Defamation Act are the Malaysian Defamation Act 1957 for civil cases and the Penal Code of Malaysia Section 499 Section 503 for criminal cases  [7]  . This law does not define defamation. It recognized two forms of defamation only that is libel and slander. There are distinct differences of these two forms of defamation. The difference lies in the means or medium by which the defamatory material is communicated. It used to be a fundamental distinction that between a written or printed word which is concludes as libel and spoken words which are considered as slander. Both libel and slander are civil and criminal offences. Thus, a person who is guilty of libel or slander may be sued in court, and also face jail sentence. In civil cases, the person so defamed will normally sue the maker of the defamatory words for compensation. The amount of the compensation depends on the damage caused to the reputation of the person suing. In criminal cases, the punishment for defamation is a jail sentence for a maximum of two years, or a fine, or a combination of a jail sentence and a fine [Section 500-502 Penal Code]. But, nowadays the general view of libel is whether the publication is in a permanent form, in other forms it is a slander. Defamation in a permanent forms and is usually visible to the eye, such as items in writing, email, pictures, statutes or effigies. Section 3 of the Defamation Act 1957 stated that broadcasting of words by means of radio communication shall be treated as communication in a permanent form. BRUNEI DEFAMATION LAW The Defamation Act of Brunei Darussalam, which was revised in 2000, punishes libel or slander by means of broadcasting, telecommunication or publication by newspaper.  [8]  Like Malaysia, the laws also governing both libel and slander are identical. Bloggers should also be aware that under the Brunei Defamation Act, a blog post for the purpose of the law of libel and slander, may be considered the equivalent to broadcasting of words by means of telecommunication and as such will be treated as publication. Even though the defamatory content on the Internet can be deleted, there is a possibility that the post can be recovered through a cache, and thus can be admitted into evidence  [9]  . Though there has not been any major case of litigation concerning blogs and bloggers in Brunei, the neighboring countries of Malaysia and Singapore have had cases which have resulted in imprisonment for comments made by bloggers  [10]  . Under Section 500 of Bruneis Penal Code, whoever defames another can be imprisoned for a term of up to 5 years and a fine  [11]  . MEDIUM OF DEFAMATION IN THE CYBERSPACE Based on Lilian Edwards study, she define that there are at least four distinct sites where defamation may occur in the cyberspace that can usefully be separated out, as to some extent they raise distinct problems  [12]  . One to one email messages Compared to the traditional written mail (via postal), transmission of email is virtually instantaneous and usually, once sent, is irrevocable. As a result, email correspondence is often in substance more like spoken conversation than written interaction  [13]  . Interaction and communication between two are becoming no limitless which can turn out to be legally actionable. Mailing List The format of an electronic mailing list is that various parties subscribe by email to the list, which is administered by some central host. The subject of discussion of the list may be anything from Internet law to real ale to homosexual fantasies. Usually the list is set up so that, by default, any email message sent by any one subscriber to the list is bounced or exploded out to every other subscriber. Carelessness can lead to the user think they reply only to the maker but actually the user sends their reply to the every member in the list. The embarrassment factor can be considerable, particularly where the members of the list form a small professional community within which the professional reputation of the person defamed can be severely damaged  [14]  . Newsgroup Newsgroups are discussion forum which are made up of comments from their subscribers, sorted by subject matter. All it takes is to subscribe and post comments to the newsgroup  [15]  . Collectively, the newsgroups available to Internet users are sometimes known as the Usenet  [16]  . There are something like 14,000 Usenet newsgroups subscribed to en masse by millions of subscribers, located in every country where there is Internet access. As a result, any comment posted to a Usenet newsgroup is virtually guaranteed to be published, and read, within days if not hours, in many hundreds of national jurisdictions. As can be imagined, the volume of material published in these forums is enormous one estimate is that around 4 million articles are available at any particular time  [17]  . Therefore, the probability of defamation cases in the newsgroup is higher. The World Wide Web Like newsgroups, Web sites can be accessed and read in multiple jurisdictions, and they therefore share many of the problems of transnational publication discussed above. But perhaps the major unique problem with the Web is how far it allows any individual to mimic traditional publishing at very low cost. Home pages can be set up which do a good job of looking like electronic journals or glossy magazines and which can be extremely attractive, with good design and graphic content  [18]  . However many of the parties setting up Web sites often fans of popular music or TV programmes, students, pressure groups, or amateur associations are not already hard copy or traditional publishers, have no knowledge of the law of defamation or libel, and may well find themselves publishing defamatory statements without fully appreciating their potential liability  [19]  . LIABILITY OF INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS The key role of ISPs is to provide access to the Internet for their subscribers. This access includes allowing subscribers both to read and write to Usenet newsgroups and to surf the Web. ISPs also sometimes host local discussion forum and almost invariably agree to act as physical hosts to Web pages set up by their subscribers (generally to a maximum storage of a few megabytes)  [20]  . In all these cases, the ISP runs the risk of being regarded as the publisher of libelous remarks, originated by another person, but published by them in one of these forums. As per mention before, any repetition or re-publication of a defamatory statement is in itself actionable. Action is possible against all intervening persons who are responsible for repeating, publishing or otherwise circulating the defamation  [21]  . Therefore, any republish or repeating, the victim can choose whether to sue original defamer or the re-publisher or both and in many cases, ISP were usually being sued due to the money issue rather than suing the original author. HOW IS DEFAMATION PUNISHED Defamation is usually a civil offence, although it can be a criminal matter under special circumstances.  [22]   CIVIL DEFAMATION Most complaints of defamation are dealt with under civil law. That means that cases go to a civil court and are punished by awarding money (called damages) against the person found to have committed the offence, usually called the defendant. If someone takes you to court for defamation, they will be the plaintiff, you will be the defendant.  [23]   In civil defamation, the principle is the same as for someone who has been physically injured as a result of someone elses actions, either through carelessness or a planned attack. The injured person may take the other person (or people) to court. If successful, the injured person will be awarded a sum of money as compensation. This money will be paid by the person who did the damage.  [24]   DAMAGES There are several kinds of damages a court can award, either separately or together.  [25]   General or Compensatory damages which a court may award for a persons loss of reputation, shame or hurt feelings. The payment to the plaintiff may be at small amount of money. Special damages compensate for any loss of business or earnings the plaintiff may have suffered as a result of the defamation. These could also include any money the plaintiff has spent as a result of the defamation, for example in sending letters to clients denying the allegations. Aggravated damages this can be awarded if the court thinks that the defamation was deliberate, possibly out of ill-will or any other improper motive (usually referred to as malice, which we discussed earlier). Punitive or Exemplary damages which may sometimes be awarded if the defamation is so extreme that the court feels the need to punish you or warn other journalists against similar conduct. Damages are usually large in the case of media organisations because the courts think that they can pay more for their mistakes than individuals can. CRIMINAL DEFAMATION Defamation can also be a criminal offence, which means that those found guilty could be fined or sent to prison or both. This is much less common than civil defamation.  [26]   A charge of criminal defamation can be brought if the words, pictures or gestures use provoke resulting riots, mob violence or other breaches of the public peace. For this reason, the prosecution does not have to prove publication to a third party. It is enough that the person the defendent are referring to hears the words (or sees the gestures) and reacts violently. However, unlike civil defamation, the prosecution will have to prove that the words complained of were malicious. In civil defamation the words may be malicious, but in criminal defamation they must be.  [27]   SOCIAL MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES Social media technologies are part of the cyberspace. It include blogs, picture sharing, email, instant messaging, vlogs and other medium that allow to be democratically interactive in ways unlike radio, television, or highly edited letters pages of newspapers and magazine. Below is some case law and summaries that happen in Brunei and Malaysia which relate with defamation in cyberspace. Facebook is a popular free social networking website that allows registered users to create profiles, upload photos and video, send messages and keep in touch with friends, family and colleague  [28]  . One recent and well-known case in Brunei with regards to Facebook Upload is Adi Adip  [29]  case where the defendant had uploaded his ex-girlfriends (Miss X) obscene picture and video clip on the Facebook. The reason for his action is to insult Miss Xs modesty as well as to get her attention after she had broken off her relationship with the defendant. The plaintiff report this issue to the police once she discovered the Facebook account is under her name, managed by the defendant and containing the obscene pictures and video clips involving herself. The court ordered for the iPhone used by the defendant to be forfeited and all photos and videos related to the case was seized and disposed of, including copies, immediately. This is one case example from Brunei of the defamation in cyberspace. Other than that, the defendant was send to jail for 10 months. In Malaysia, over the past years, Malaysians have been increasingly engaged in virtual communities and online interactions. Some have led to positive outcomes, but some of these virtual arenas have been exploited, tarnishing the true potential of the Internet  [30]  . In case of Jeff Ooi and Rocky Bru  [31]  case, this is the first time in Malaysia that a prominent media organization filed a suit against bloggers. Jeff Oois Screenshot become a topic of debate when he retracted all his libelous allegations in weblog against the New Straits Times. Raja Petra Kamaruddin is a Malaysian editor known for running Malaysia Today website. He published a series of commentary article on Malaysia politics in the website. There are a lot of cases relate to him which include both Civil and Criminal offences. Some of his cases are: Nordin Kardi UUM v RPK (2008) Lt-Col Aziz Buyong Lt-Col Norhayati Hassan v RPK (2008) Datuk Muhammad Shafee Abdullah v RPK (2008) Public Prosecutor v RPK (2008) Due to large number of cases he was being suit, he was arrested by the authorities. He was detained under the Internal Security Act on 12th September 2008 under section 73, 60 days detention by Police Officer and again on 24th September 2008, under section 8(1) which he was detained for 2 years by the Minister. CONCLUSION As mention earlier in this paper, the objective of this paper is to determine jurisdiction on the regional cases of defamation in Brunei and Malaysia. This paper also explains medium of defamation in the cyberspace, the effects of the defamation to the victim, the punishment to the defamer and the court action with the case. Weve found that there are 4 distinct medium of defamation in the cyberspace one to one email messages, mailing list, newsgroup and the World Wide Web  [32]  . As we know, defamation can result to injure the reputation of the victim and in particular to cause him (or her) to be regarded with feelings of hatred, contempt, ridicule, fear, dislike or disesteem.

Phonetics in learning English

Phonetics in learning English Introduction The core of phonetic is to identify the characteristics of the sounds which human begins can use in language. Sounds can basically be divided into two types: vowels and consonants. Vowels are produced by altering the shape of the vocal tract by positioning of the tongue and lips. Consonants are sounds which are produced by the partial or complete construction of the vocal tract. The picture of how your mouth looks when you say sounds. (Sharon Widmayer and Holly Gray) image of articulators Your lips, teeth, tongue, nose, and roof of your mouth are all important for pronunciation. The epiglottis is also important. That is the thing that you use to hold your breath and to swallow. It closes your windpipe so the air cannot come out. The components of teaching the sound of English 1. Vowels Vowels are usually described by reference to five criteria, and these are adequate as a basic point of reference, although some vowel sound require more specification: the height reached by the highest point of the tongue (high, mid, low) , the part of the tongue which is raised (front, center, back), the shape formed by the lips (unrounded or spread, rounded) the position of the soft palate for oral vowels, lowered for nasal vowels, the duration of the vowel (short, long) Some Generalizations (Not Rules) about English vowels and spelling English vowels have long and short forms. The long form is the name of the letter: The short form is as follows: Long vowels are usually (but not always) indicated by a second (silent) vowel in the same syllable: Short vowels usually stand alone within a syllable and are often followed by double consonants: 2. Consonant sounds Consonant sounds have three basic features in their articulation: place of articulation, manager of articulation, and voicing. Consonants produce sounds that are more consistent and easier to identify than vowels. Therefore, they make a good starting point for learning to read. Initially, work should be done on identifying beginning consonant sounds (ex: t-t-t tulip). After that, activities can focus on identifying final consonant sounds (ex: cat ends with the t-t-t sound) When children learn to recognize the sounds of consonants at the beginning and end positions of words, they gain the ability to look at a word and make a reasonable guess as to what it might be. Viewing the word in the context of a picture will help reinforce this skill. (for example, a picture of a dog with the word DOG underneath. The ability to sound out the D and G letters will help the child identify that the word is DOG, not puppy or dalmation) The ideas and activities presented in this section will help children develop the following skills: identifying beginning consonant sounds distinguishing between two or more beginning consonant sounds identifying ending consonant sounds distinguishing between two or more ending consonants choosing words that have a particular beginning or ending consonant The following diagram shows the names of the various parts of the mouth involved in the production of English consonants: A = nasal cavityB = alveolar ridgeC = hard palateD = soft palate or velumE = lips and teethF = tongue 1 tip 2 blade 3 bodyG = uvulaH = larynx and vocal cordsv For each consonant, two parts of the mouth are involved, and the name given to it reflects this. Starting from the front, some consonants are made using both lips try saying /p/ /b/ /w/ and /m/ and these are called bilabial consonants (bilabial = two lips) Now try /f/ and /v/. This time its the bottom lip and top teeth which are involved. These are labiodental consonants (labio = lip, dental = teeth). For nearly all the other consonants, the tongue will interact with another part of the mouth. The name of the consonant doesnt include a reference to the tongue however, just the point of the mouth which it meets. So for instance, sounds made by an interaction between the tongue and the teeth are just called dental sounds. These are /t/, /d/ and the voiced and unvoiced th sounds: /  °/ as in this and /ÃŽ ¸/ as in thick . If you run your tongue back behind your teeth, you come to a bony ridge called the alveolar ridge. Several sounds are made on or just behind the ridge /s/ /z/ /t/ /d/ /n/ /r/ and /l/ Moving back from the alveolar ridge you come to a similarly hard but smoother zone the hard palate. /j/ as in yellow is a palatal sound, are as the highlighted consonants in the words sheep, measure, cheap and jeep. There is also a palatal version of the /r/ consonant. If you found it strange that it was classed before as alveolar, you may have been saying the palatal version. Notice that there is now a difference in the way the tongue is used. For the dental and alveolar sounds, it was the tip of the tongue which was involved. For palatal sounds, however, its the blade of the tongue, and as we move further back to the velum (the soft part of the palate, closest to the throat) its the back, or body, of the tongue. The velar sounds are /g/ and /k/ and the final consonants in sing and in bottle often called the dark l. This leaves only the consonant /h/ which is produced by air passing from the windpipe through the vocal cords, or glottis. Its therefore a glottal sound. Place of Articulation tells us where the consonants are produced, but we also need to consider Manner of Articulation how they are produced. The most important categories are: Plosives: Plosive sounds (also called stop sounds) are formed by the air being completely blocked in the mouth and then suddenly released. For example, /k/ and /g/ are formed when the back of the tongue rises to the velum and momentarily blocks the air. These are therefore velar plosives. The other plosive consonants of English are the bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/ and the alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/. Some varieties of English London English for example also include a glottal stop which substitutes for the /t/ consonant between vowels. Imagine a London pronunciation of butter, for example. Fricatives: Fricatives are formed when the two parts of the mouth approach each other closely, not completely blocking the passage of the air, but forcing it through a confined space. The air molecules start to bump against each other causing audible friction. Try the palatal fricative the sh sound. You can feel your tongue up close to the alveolar ridge and the air passing through the small space left. The full list of English fricatives is : labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/; dental fricatives the two th sounds; alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/; palatal fricatives /ʃ/ as in in sheep and /Ê’/ as in measure; and the glottal fricative /h/. Affricates: Affricates are really a plosive and a fricative combined. The air is initially blocked, and then released through a narrow passageway like a fricative. English has two affricates, the initial sounds in cheap and jeep / Ê / and /Ê ¤/. These are usually classed as palato-alveolar affricates, as theyre made in a position half way between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. Nasals: when a nasal sound is produced, the air is prevented from going out through the mouth and is instead released through the nose. There are three English nasals the bilabial nasals /m/ and /n/ and the velar nasal /ņ¹/ the final consonant in sing. Approximant: Approximants are a bit of a hotch-potch category, and contain some of the most problematic sounds in English. Well look at them in detail another time, but for now will classify them together as sounds produced when the airstream moves around the tongue and out of the mouth with almost no obstruction. The English approximants are the alveolar approximants /l/ and /r/, the palatal approximant /j/, as in yes, and the dark l the velar approximant as in bottle. Keep in mind, however, that this is a simplification. This leaves the third distinguishing category which we discussed in the last article voicing. If the vocal cords are vibrated when the sound is made, the sound is voiced. If the are not, it is unvoiced. Several of the English consonants come in pairs. They have the same place and manner of articulation and are distinguished only by voicing (1). For example /t/ and /d/ are both alveolar plosives, but /t/ is unvoiced while /d/ is voiced. In the summarizing chart below, where pairs occur the unvoiced sound is always given first. 3. Sounds in connected speech Sounds are seldom produced in isolation. In connected speech (that is, any sequence spoken at natural speed), many sounds tend to be altered of modified by the sound immediately before of after them, especially at the boundaries between words. According to the Excerpt from Study Guide, Connected Speech is the key to gaining a natural, smooth-flowing style of speech. People do not speak in separate words; they speak in logical connected groups of words. Even native speakers sometimes stumble over their words because they are unaware of the little tricks for avoiding the pitfalls. Trained actors, of course, are able to deliver lengthy, complex, and even tongue-twisting passages flawlessly. This is not a gift. They have simply learned the rules for linking one word into another with intention. When youve finished this tape, youll know the rules, too; and with practice youll become a fluent, polished speaker. These are the steps for speaking in connected speech: Direct Linking: Linking final consonants directly into vowels Play and Link: Linking final consonants fully played and linked to fully played non-related consonants. Prepare and Link: Prepare for the final consonant, and execute related consonant that it is linking into. Weak Forms: A lot of the very small connecting words in speech are so de-emphasized, or unstressed, that they often take on a Weak Form. Contractions: We use these words so much that, we usually contract them together. Word Endings and Contractions: Common Word Endings (Suffixes).These are mostly unstressed, and should be treated like weak forms. Dialogues Practicing Word Endings and Contractions: These dialogues have a double emphasis. Practicing both Word Endings and Contractions within a context. Conclusion If other aspects of pronunciation are dealt with efficiently, sounds do not present such a problem. Again, much of the difficulty which students have when pronouncing English sounds comes, not from a physical inability to form them, but from language interference. This occurs when the student knows how an English word is spelt and pronounces it as if was written in his own language. It is important for a teacher to know how sounds are formed so that he understands what his students are doing wrong. References John Haycraft. (1978). An introduction to English language teaching. Longman: Longman Group Ltd.1978 Jones, D.(1998). The Pronunciation of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://www.kidzone.ws/kindergarten/consonants-intro.htm Kelly, G.(2000). How to Teach Pronunciation. Harlow: Peason. Ladefoged, P.(2005). Vowels and Consonants: Oxford: Blackwell. Steele,V.(2005) Connected Speech (Onlline). http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/(2005, May 29)

Discrimination Against Redheads Essay example -- Racial Relations, Ste

Discrimination, stereotypes, and prejudice are constant problems in society which are consistent at any age in all cultural and social settings. The results of discriminative behaviour against different children can impair psychological development and result in depression episodes which sometimes lead to suicide (Schoolboy bullied, 2009). Suicide among adolescents is not a new phenomenon, but discrimination based on appearance is definitely a form of catalyst that makes the pressure of growing up higher and unbearable (Konopka, 1983). This research will focus on discrimination against redheads because scientific research has covered other forms of discrimination based on appearance, but discrimination against redheads remains a neglected area in both society (Bellasugar Australia, 2009) and scientific research. The gene mutation responsible for ginger hair was discovered in 1995, but this research did not leave any significant impact and future research based on this discovery was dedicated to exploring other differences in genetic constitution between redheads and people with other hair colour (Johansen, 2005). For example, it is established that red hair is the first phenotype linked to pain tolerance (Knight, 2002). Research by Edwin Liem, Teresa Joiner, Kentaro Tsueda, and Daniel Sessler (2005) proved that redheads are more sensitive to thermal pain than women with dark hair, and the results have confirmed previous studies regarding redhead resistance to anaesthetics. There were several limitations to this study, including possible bias from the investigators and subjective responses from participants, but Liem, Joiner, Tsueda, and Sessler (2005) have reached the desired conclusion because they did not consider these limita... ...lops during childhood, the inability to reverse it will most likely result in retaining the prejudice during adulthood. Because no research has been made regarding hair colour discrimination, the main aim of this research will be to collect and analyse the data, so future research will be possible. Without providing empirical evidence that discriminations against redheads exist, it is not possible to continue exploring the discrimination effects on psychological development among redheads. Most importantly, prejudice against redheads is the most neglected area of prejudice, and people should be more open about it than about political, racial, religious, and other forms of prejudice, so future research could perhaps provide insight into variables that influence the formation of prejudices which researchers in other forms of appearance-based prejudices have missed.

The Conservative Movement Essay -- U.S. Politics

The conservative movement has played a crucial role in American politics in the post war era. Ronald Story and Bruce Laurie indentify various elements of the American conservatism. These elements include challenging authoritarian governments and modernist culture, upholding tradition, Christian religion and the rule of law, defending western civilization, and supporting republicanism. American conservatism has been characterized by competing ideologies and tension throughout history. The Americans who are politically liberal and economically conservative favor free trade, minimal state intervention, low taxes, and a small government. On the other hand, conservatives hold the view that American traditional values are normally undermined by secularism. Social conservatives have always opposed same-sex marriages and abortion, and instead have been supporting the idea of integrating prayer into the school curriculum (Story and Laurie 1). In the 1950s, after the Word War II, modern conservative movement emerged in the U.S. This conservative movement blended the elements of libertarianism and traditional conservatism. However, many historians have associated the emergence of the modern conservative movement with the New Deal. One of the most important elements of the conservative movement in 1950s is that it was an anti-communist group. This was experienced in the 1950s when North Korea, which embraces communism, attacked South Korea. Truman, who was the president at that time, tried liberate South Korea by force without obtaining the approval of the congress. Instead, he obtained approval from the United Nations. This made republicans to strongly criticize the war as well as the policies that were being employed by Truman. In additio... ... Ball, Stuart and Ian Holliday. Mass Conservatism: The Conservatives and the Public since the 1880s. London: Frank Cass Publishers. Print. Brennan, Mary C. Turning Right in the Sixties: The Conservative Capture of the GOP. The University of North Carolina Press, 1995. Web. 24 Apr. 2012. Cooper, Barry, Allan Kornberg and William Mishler. The Resurgence of Conservatism in Anglo-American Democracies. Durham: Duke University Press, 1988. Print. Dallek, Matthew. â€Å"The Conservative 1960s From The Perspective Of The 1990s, It's The Big Political Story Of The Era.† The Atlantic Online. The Atlantic Online, Dec. 1995. Web. 24 Apr. 2012. Story, Ronald and Bruce Laurie. The Rise of Conservatism in America, 1945-2000: A Brief History with Documents. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2008. Print.

Essay --

Agriculture plays an important role in the economic development of the country. It produces not only food and raw material but also a large portion of the workforce is engaged in this field (more than 50% in Georgia) . Agriculture is characterized by the presence of risk factors, and hence it is very important to know how to deal with these hazards. Risk factors can be not only biological or climatic variability, as well as fluctuations in prices. Unlike other manufacturers, for farmers and also for privet companies which are involved in agriculture it is difficult to predict the revenues and therefore profits from their activities. Therefore, insurance in agriculture is regarded as the one of the most important and effective way of rick management. It’s very interesting to look through the frameworks of insurance systems in developed countries and also study the experience of developing countries. As well the discussions about tendencies and problems related to insurance in developing countries. As it seems half of the worldwide agriculture insurance comes for US, and less than one-third comes for Western European states. Only three percent comes for Central and Eastern European countries of the world's agricultural insurance. Downstairs on the table we can see the availability of agricultural insurance around the world. In developed countries, there are different types of insurance systems. One of them is the privet insurance system in case of which the insurance companies provide the total compensation for losses and there is no government subsidy for premiums. This kind of insurance system works in Finland, in Germany and in France and in a few other developed countries. Private companies typically insure only certain risks... ... as the reinsurer and they forming entire system and working with it. In this case state should have the role organizer and should put the first capital in this type of insurance companies. The main founders of this system should be the farmers, agricultural cooperatives and peasantry, and also the farmers who have the status of an independent legal entity. I think, taking into account the situation of are in Georgia in this field, I mean, considering natural climate risks, at least in the first stage of all crops and agricultural sectors to be insured should be mandatory for government. Also, it will be interesting to divide Georgia as western and eastern parts and create the self-insurance funds or communities in these two regions. It will be more risk averse for farmers and it will diversify the risks. I will work to make deep this idea and apply to Georgia. â€Æ'

Research Paper: Crime Prevention Strategies

Contents Page Executive Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4 Research Question (or hypothesis)†¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Research (including methodology)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4 Literature Review†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4 Findings†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6 Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 8 Reference List†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 Executive SummaryThe focus of this paper will be based upon different crime prevention strategies implemented by members of the communities, local and government authorities. It will focus mainly on those practices involving community cooperation and portray how they are successful or unsuccessful in reducing criminality in high crime areas. Firstly, the topic of this research report in clearly stated below. The methods used to acquire the information contained in this research report are also described below.The literature review discusses the three main themes found in the allocated articles relating to community crime prevention. These include techniques to reduce juvenile crime; fear of crime between the community members and the social divides that are created by implementing community crime prevention strategies. The findings discuss, in depth, the effects on the three themes mentioned above once these prevent ion strategies were implemented. It gives examples of peoples experiences with crime and crime prevention. Finally the discussion presents the outcomes achieved, that are shown by the various uthors. It also touches on the government’s involvement and how it can be improved. The conclusion sums up all the findings in this report and gives an idea of future hope for less crime. Research Question (or hypothesis) ‘What are the leading practices in the field of community crime prevention? You can choose to either research and discuss a wide range of different community crime prevention strategies, or focus on an example of a particular technique and research its successes, limitations and applications. ’ The topic of this paper discusses community crime prevention.It talks about a range of different types of prevention strategies that are used to reduce or minimise crime targeted areas or fields. The various effects of these strategies are shown throughout the report . Research (including methodologies) Before composing this research report, the methodology exercised for this task was content analysis. Content analysis demands for the reader to read ‘in between the lines'. Its main requirement is to draw conclusions from the information presented and apply it to the point being made.The requirements of this methodology are to research and locate a range of reliable secondary resources, applying them to strengthen the argument of crime prevention. Primary research was not conducted as that would have been a more advanced project and is not part of the academic requirement for an undergraduate level. Many different databases were used such as the internet, university databases, academic libraries and Google scholar. Access to libraries and the internet were vital in achieving this task.The scholarly articles were beneficial to this task as the composers of these articles had conducted detailed research themselves, allowing their information to support the point being made in this task. Literature Review Many areas are now trying to implement community crime prevention in order to get citizens more involved in reducing or preventing crime in their neighbourhoods. The articles discuss the different techniques being used to implement this change. One main strategy is connecting the citizens to the criminals.By doing so the citizens are able to see the results that occur when people become criminals. The three main themes explored in these articles are: 1. Youth/ juvenile violence, 2. Social divide created between communities, and 3. Reducing fear of crime The philosophy of Robert Peel that â€Å"the police are the public and the public are the police†, is one that perfectly sums up the relationship between the police and the rest of the community (Lentz & Chaires 2007). This quote suggests that law enforcement needs approval from citizens and residents of neighbourhoods to perform their duties correctly.Meaning, th is requires the police to maintain an informed relationship with the community. By doing so they are reducing the reoccurrence of the themes in crime prevention mentioned above. Previously, there was not enough knowledge or resources amongst communities to raise awareness or organise crime prevention programs for juveniles. Today, schools together with police and community-based workers are aiming to provide the expertise to help create crime prevention programs for juveniles.It is believed that that one of the most active crime prevention strategies is effective intervention programs. A substantial number of crimes amongst adolescence are detected from anti-social behaviours. Youth need to be more involved in their community activities such as church associated groups, sports clubs, recreation centres (Dodington et al 2012, p. 1026). Other school organisations such as ‘Links to Learning’ helps adolescences engage in activities that will teach worthy skills for future w ork and careers.All these extracurricular activities will give youth less time to consider committing crimes and more time to become involved in the community. The National Crime Prevention 1999 quotes â€Å"an improved understanding of the early childhood origins of juvenile delinquency highlights the opportunities for prevention programs† (Bor et al 2001, p. 5). One of the limitations of creating community based crime prevention and linking the citizens to crime and criminal is that it creates social divisions between citizens.Usually the higher and middle class citizens are involved in community project and the lower class citizens are left out. This makes the lower class citizens inferior and targeted for being the ones who are expected to commit acts of crime. This creates a division of ‘us’ (higher class) and ‘them’ (lower class). Ward (1997, p. 4) suggests â€Å"situational crime prevention approach may displace crime, tends to benefit middle and upper classes at the expense of the poor people, and may increase the fear of crime. It also may create a siege mentality, isolating individuals and families. He then further states that complaints, of disturbances, made to the police are not always filed. Firstly, the police are given the authority to decide whether the complaint is serious enough, secondly if the victim and criminal have met before and finally judging by the victims social class (Ward 1997, p. 5). In order to effectively reduce crime, relationships between communities and local authorities need to be addressed. The presence of police may be quite contradictory to residents, it can be comforting for some but disturbing for others.If residents are not aware of measures being taken by police to help prevent crime, they cannot assume their presence is positive but rather understand that more crime is occurring (Mesko et al 2007, p. 70). This will further increase the fear in residents caused by the occurrence of criminal activity in their neighbourhoods’. One resident of Hyde Park describes her lifestyle to have become based upon fear. Since her home was broken into 3 years ago, a gun is always present beside her through the night; the TV is on the entire time she is at home and an alarm system has been installed.The extreme fear is shown in these extra precautions, â€Å"When I come home late at night, I always blow my horn before I get out of the car, so I make sure that a neighbour is looking out. When I sleep at night, there are at least three lights on. † (Ward 1997, p. 5). Complaints have been made to the police, however not knowing the severity of the case; no serious action has been taken. This, again, clearly shows a lack of communication between authorities and their neighbourhoods. Findings It is very clear from the above review that great measures are being taken to try and reduce or even eliminate crime within communities.Law enforcement authorities originally wou ld address crime; however, today citizens are becoming more active and involved in keeping their own communities safe. The results of the first theme, youth/juvenile violence, found that this violence originated from childhood behaviours and therefore should be addressed at these early stages. In doing so crimes committed by youth should be minimised. The main notion believed to reduce youth violence is ‘diversion’. Creating a distraction or alternative for youth is the only way to keep them from winding up face to face with the criminal justice system.This idea argued that juvenile offenders who are placed before the justice system are done more harm than good and are more likely to reoffend. On the other hand, diversions such as sporting activities or after school programs need to be created. These diversions will keep the minds of these ‘adults in the making’ off negative thoughts to commit crimes (Tilley 2005, p. 356). Detective Sergeant Heslop (1991), agreeing with the notion of diversion, states â€Å"Often there is little point in punishing an offender, as the punishment can be shown to be counterproductive. †¦ ] By charging them we are often condemning them to further and deeper involvement in the juvenile justice system, which is, it is submitted, a failure. † He also goes on to say that diversion is the greatest prevention tool and if used appropriately law enforcement can battle juvenile crime more efficiently. The next discussion was the social divide created within the communities when trying to implement crime prevention. Not all citizens were eager to work side by side with police to manage criminal activity.Studies show that people with higher levels of wealth and quality of life are more likely to cooperate with police as they have more to lose. However the rest of the general public, those classified to have lower levels of wealth and standards of living, were reluctant to become involved as they didnâ₠¬â„¢t have much to lose and were viewed as those more likely to commit crimes (Mesko 2007, p. 84). This divide within the community allowed citizens of the higher class to feel a sense of empowerment through their involvement with the police and once again created isolation for those individuals classified as a part of the lower social class.However the people of the lower social class can also be to blame. It is asserted by Podolefsky (1983) that generally when crimes are committed and no action is taken, liability is placed upon the police. Community members prefer to abuse authorities rather than cooperate and help put criminals away (cited in Ward 1997, p. 5). The final theme discussed is reducing the fear of crime in citizens. Findings show that people are afraid for their safety and do not want to be victims of crime. As a result of this fear, rates of crimes are increasing.In order to relieve this fear people started using different methods to defend themselves such as carryi ng guns, knives and other protective weapons (Mesko 2007, p. 75). Ward (1997, p. 5) also proves this as â€Å"(a)lmost all residents and business owners interviewed either formally or informally owned guns and kept them nearby, ready for use. † Police are given the primary role of fighting crime and are expected to â€Å"eliminate all evil in society so that the ‘good citizen’ can live in freedom without living fear† (Mesko 2007 p. 81).But to give this role to police solely and not have community crime prevention programs will not guarantee reducing crime within communities and furthermore not reduce fear of crime. Discussion The main point for discussion in this research paper is that community development is a necessary approach to addressing crime and promoting justice in our nation (Acosta & Chavis 2007, p. 653). Over the years, police were given the main responsibility to deal with crime; however the development of a community approach will allow memb ers to engage in ddressing socials issues such as crime. This approach also gives member a responsibility to help maintain a safe living location. As pointed out in Acosta and Chavis (2007, p. 654) â€Å"In the community development approach, community members are responsible for solving community problems; to meet this responsibility, community members are given a voice and collective power to influence decisions and social outcomes that will affect their lives. † Some authors argue the effectiveness of an approach involving community crime prevention.The National Crime prevention Framework (Australian Institute of Criminology 2011) believes this approach has proved to be effective, with outcomes such as: †¢Reducing crime and other concerning problems within the community, †¢Increased safety and unity leading to less victimisation, †¢More emotional and psychological support for those who have been victims of crime, and †¢Reducing crimes by those who have previously offended or been engaged in antisocial behaviour. The efficiency of allowing the public to participate in the decision making related to crime, is also shown through the great outcomes achieved in the youth discipline.Partnerships were created with local universities that resulted in service learning programs and continuous student internships which were important in establishing students’ careers by putting them on the right path. Another great accomplishment was that students were achieving better results in school and their behaviours and negative attitudes were definitely improving (Pickens 2011, p. 19-21). An important outcome as clarified by Pickens (2011, p. 20) was â€Å"increasing youth’s awareness about risky behaviour, violence, weapons, drugs, and alcohol†, which was said to be the major motivation for all the other improvements.A topic that has been mentioned by various authors is the amount of government involvement in community crime pr evention. It is suggested by Australian Institute of Criminology (2011) that first and foremost the government can help to minimise crime, â€Å"Governments can address factors that influence the opportunities for crime to occur through its various responsibilities in areas such as managing public space and building design, providing community recreational services and developing policies that affect local businesses and urban development processes. Furthermore, Greenberg and Rohe (1984) indicate â€Å"(t)he physical design and appearance of a community (i. e. , structural assets) affect criminal access†(cited in Acosta & Chavis 2007, p. 654). Consequently, through developing safer public places governments can begin to create safer public environments. The articles and supporting documents used to assemble this research report were generally discussing very similar aspects of community crime prevention.Topics included juvenile crime prevention, the fear of crime that has be en developing in citizens and the community crime prevention strategies that were being used to reduce and prevent crime within neighbourhoods. To increase the effectiveness of these approaches further research should be conducted in the areas of government participation. To take community crime prevention to the next level, local government should consider formalising or enforcing requirements that must be met by all citizens.All citizens should be expected to be involved in creating a safer and combined community. Conclusion Summing up, the involvement of community members in prime prevention is an effective technique. With the help of schools, police, and citizens crime has been reduced in youth, fear of crime has been minimised and social relationships strengthened. More communities should be encouraged to implement more strategies involving their citizens. A final thought is whether governments should consider enforcing community crime prevention in all areas to enable safer li ving environments.

Plato’s Writings Essay

This paper will discuss several of Plato’s writings such as The Apology, Phaedo, Crito, etc.   The paper will be in part an analysis and in part a presentation of the philosophy of Plato through is writings as well as his writings in accordance with Socrates’ philosophy. Mortality Human nature is a nature of reason, not strictly adherent to passion or feelings.   Morality then, becomes the crux of this nature.   Morality is reason.   This is not to say that Plato was an ascetic; he placed passion, and feelings in his philosophy but the ethics of humanity are tied into the good of a person because reasonably, being virtuous, or good led a person to being happy (eudemonism).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Anything else that a person may be presented with and made to make a choice, that choice should be rooted in virtue.   Whatever else is chosen by free will should only serve to making that person virtuous.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Plato was a man filled with faith in human nature.   Plato’s philosophy of human nature doing evil was that a person only does evil in ignorance, for he believed everyone, just as himself wants only what is good.   The source of someone doing evil is brought about by unlimited desire.   Something that goes unmitigated becomes possessive of that person and they in turn want, and want, without satiation.   This is when the appetitive part of the soul (the part of the soul that wants sex, food, etc.) overtakes the rational (part seeking truth, and reason) of the soul resulting in moral weakness or akrasia.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is not then self-interest that leads a person to happiness, and there is a definite equilibrium between the allowance of each part of the soul guided by reason, and asceticism.   Plato was a not a Sophist.   Without the guidance of moral reason then a state of chaos would ensue entailing an everyman for himself type of attitude.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Morality must then be shown as adhering to individual interests.   Plato did not agree with the type of hedonism exhibited by the Sophists, who thought human nature was an extension of the animal world.   Instead, Plato states that the nature of man is reason; and in this reason exists an organized society constructed by reason.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Happiness for the rational man then comes into fruition by governing their more base, animal, desires, which are irrational.   This morality is extended into the realm of society because of human interaction.   Therefore, if a man is to be the pinnacle of reason, and morality, and happiness, then the society that he lives and associates must then also exhibit such a moral temperance.   If then a society is blinded by hedonism, or pure desire of self, a man in that society has no hope for personal happiness because of lack of morality, reason, and thus fully succumbing to akrasia. Plato’s Phaedo and Immortality The realm of the reasoning man, according to Plato in his work Phaedo, is extrapolated by Socrates, that is, a man who is within reason also must admit to the fundamental truths regarding life after death.   That is to say, in Socrates explanation of immortality, there remains the outlook that the body and the soul are not eternally combined; but the soul is grounded in the body through emotions, and feral states of humanity.   When the soul is released from such torpor, it then reclines back into its previous non-corporeal state to either rest, or to transform and reinvent itself in the world.   The soul, according to Socrates, is that which is in us that commands and it is the body that serves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The soul then, according to the previous statement is created in the divine will, and since divinity cannot be defined through the corporeal, the body must be mortal, and therefore finite.   The soul on the other hand is infinite.   The soul is the image of divinity; in the soul there is found an unceasing existence of transformation.   The reasonable man must then accept the dichotomy of the body and soul, as well as accept their harmony he must distance the idea that the body and the soul are one.   The body is mortal, and can succumb to dissolution, but according to Socrates, the soul is indissoluble.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The soul then has a life of her own.   Socrates questions the ideas of what humankind supposes to be immortal.   God is immortal, and the diversity of heaven and hell in all fallible senses is immortal, but the reasonable man but design for himself the idea that he too is of a strand of divinity.   The soul is associated with the ideal and the invisible.   The body commands emotions, and its fate lies within those external circumstances, that is nature, but the soul, in Socrates’ view is above nature. The soul is a higher self.   As the introduction to Phaedo states, â€Å"The human being alone has the consciousness of truth and justice and love, which is the consciousness of God.   And the soul becoming more conscious of these, becomes more conscious of her own immortality† (23).   The soul hinges upon the realization that she is immortal.   In that consciousness, and in that state of being, there exists God, and all that is immortal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Therefore, Socrates is trying to define the perimeters of immortality, and the fact that a reasonable man cannot indubitably believe that the body and the soul will perish, but must in fact take credence to the soul existing at a higher level of existence, that is, at the level with God.   Socrates is placing a belief system in his dialectic, and in so doing he goes into analyzing the existence of God, or the intangible being that is the divine.   In Phaedo Socrates circulates his ideas around the immortality of the soul and the acceptance of this by the reasoning man on the basis of the dimension that God portrays.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   By dimension, suffice it to say that God, in divine right, is perfect.   It is in that perfection that man may find allusions to his reasoning, and by so doing, reason that since the soul is of God, then man himself is immortal, as Plato wrights, â€Å"An evil God, or an indifferent God might have had the power but not the will, to preserve us†¦But is he is perfect, he must will that all rational beings should partake of that perfection which he himself is† (23).   Life after death then is a certainty on a celestial level.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Socrates is attempting to connect his theory of knowledge with that of the soul’s ability to reincarnate or transform or simply exist beyond the development of the natural world.   In this doctrine he attempts to bring forth the ideas of past and future states of existence.   He is attempting to define eternity, which is incomprehensible to the mortal keen, but with the soul, the soul being undoubtedly of a higher fiber than that of the mundane, Socrates must conclude that the mind itself is therefore dependent on an ephemeral essence that is beyond its comprehension.   This type of thought process is one that is known as the transcendental method of interpretation. The Apology and The Cave In The Apology Plato presents Socrates explanation of immortality.   The Apology presents the principles of Socrates in that philosophers should be humble and admit that they know nothing.   Also, in this book Socrates is explaining why he is being persecuted and the following few paragraphs will highlight his philosophy about religion. Socrates taught philosophy in a question answer dialogue.   The dialectic art of arriving at the truth was the system Socrates used.   In this regard he would arrive at the truth by questioning the belief of engaged speakers in a philosophic circle.   Although this idea of philosophy may come across as non-confrontational, Socrates used this method to verbally jab at the speaker until they themselves found fault in their philosophy, and through a system of negative or positive responses came to recognize the truth. This type of philosophy has been likened to a cross examination present in today’s court rooms, where the person under oath is asked a series of questions that are both destructive and humiliating, until they are forced to acknowledge the truth, much like the arguments around Socrates.   The aim of such confrontational questioning was always about truth; Socrates believed that this was the main goal of philosophy, and philosophical discussions, and he believed that everyone involved with the account was in pursuit of this goal as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to be human, not only the idea of reflection upon life is necessary but in emphasizes of the use of the Socratic method in that reflection and in the course of finding the truth, questions are paired with such reflection.   At this level, questioning and reflection are the apex of what it means to be human.   Socrates however had some varying views on philosophy that opposed some of what Plato believed.   Socrates was a skeptic, as was Plato, and as can be exemplified in the cave metaphor, but Socrates also believed that a person can be convicted of their own beliefs even if they cannot find their pathway of truth. Plato, in contrast, believed that philosophers were the delegates who maintained what was and was not truth, and led the way to such truth for the common man.   It is not then self-interest that leads a person to happiness, and there is a definite equilibrium between the allowance of each part of the soul guided by reason, and asceticism.   Plato was a not a Sophist.   Without the guidance of moral reason then a state of chaos would ensue entailing an everyman for himself type of attitude.   It is a bitter debate on whether or not Socrates was a Sophist, he himself vehemently denied it but some of his philosophies correlated with Sophist thinking (i.e. the issues of ethics, and living a good life, each Sophist preoccupations). Plato’s Crito, The Trial, Death of Socrates Plato is a firm believer in man not adhering to the masses opinion but staying true to one singular person, a person of wisdom, and as Plato states through Socrates, â€Å"And he ought to live and train, and eat and drink in the way which seems good to his single master who has understanding, rather than according to the opinion of all other men put together?†Ã‚   Plato’s basic rhetoric involves the golden rule of do unto others as you would have done unto you.   There must then remain the basic principles of morality in society for society to maintain it’s virtuous code of ethics.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Socrates gives many examples of when a man is injured then he in turn must not injure, for here is the principle of a moral society, and the society in which Plato was integral.   Socrates is continually requesting of Crito whether or not it is right to do evil.   For, Socrates states, that doing evil in return damages not only the man, but also the society in which the man presides.   It is therefore unjust to do evil, for committing evil is the same as injuring man, and by extension, the State.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though the difference of partnership and dominator society is both prevalent in Plato’s Crito the difference can also be subjective.   So, subjectively speaking there is a definite sense of the dominator society in Socrates adherence to their death sentence for him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though Socrates’ philosophy dictates that the State has to maintain control in order for morality to support society, Plato’s partnership with the State is deceived by the phallic nature of human’s innate aptitude for error.   If the State is made up of individuals, and in Plato’s own writings, man is presumable good, or at least strives to be good, the objective reader must not misinterpret this to mean that man will always be good.   In the absolute of this believe there can exist no room for fluctuation, and it is within the nature of humanity to be inconsistent, fallible, and wrong.   Therefore, Socrates is misguided in the State, for the State is within reason imperfect for its members are human.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The State, according to Socrates is holier than father and mother for they beget father and mother and all generations.   It is because of the State that humanity exists, but it is also with the State that human nature is best exampled as dichotomized.   The State and humanity are both good and bad, capable of very evil and wicked deeds as well as   adhering to moral laws.   Plato is optimistic with Socrates, or Socrates was a very gullible man who professed to the rightness involved with the State because he was a man who liked control and not chaos.   With an objective mind, there must exist both sides of the spectrum, both control and chaos so that society can function.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The dominator societies were about autocratic power and partnership societies were about shared responsibility.   Socrates placed his faith in not the masses but the one ‘man’ that was full of wisdom; that is, the State, Plato writes, Are we to say that we are never intentionally to do wrong, or that in one way we ought and in another way we ought not to do wrong, or is doing wrong always evil and dishonorable, as I was just now saying, and as has been already acknowledged by us? Are all our former admissions which were made within a few days to be thrown away? And have we, at our age, been earnestly discoursing with one another all our life long only to discover that we are no better than children? Or are we to rest assured, in spite of the opinion of the many, and in spite of consequences whether better or worse, of the truth of what was then said, that injustice is always an evil and dishonor to him who acts unjustly? Shall we affirm that? Crito says yes, injustice is evil, and those who oppose the dictation of the State are acting with dishonor.   Socrates forgets in his delusions of morality that the State is not always guided by such moral virtue, and that in its compromise of this, becomes evil.   In current worldviews, there is a definite dissatisfaction in the governing of certain states, such as mass genocide, child crimes, etc, and if a person is to believe fully in Socrates and Plato’s philosophy the State is just in such action. Work Cited MacDonald, Ross.   Socrates versus Plato.   Aspects of Education.   P9-22.   1996. Plato.   Phaedo.     Ã‚   Plato.   Crito.   Translated by Benjamin Jowett.   < http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/crito.html>